encoding/binary: read at most MaxVarintLen64 bytes in ReadUvarint

This CL ensures that ReadUvarint consumes only a limited
amount of input (instead of an unbounded amount).

On some inputs, ReadUvarint could read an arbitrary number
of bytes before deciding to return an overflow error.
After this CL, ReadUvarint returns that same overflow
error sooner, after reading at most MaxVarintLen64 bytes.

Fix authored by Robert Griesemer and Filippo Valsorda.

Thanks to Diederik Loerakker, Jonny Rhea, Raúl Kripalani,
and Preston Van Loon for reporting this.

Fixes #40618
Fixes CVE-2020-16845

Change-Id: Ie0cb15972f14c38b7cf7af84c45c4ce54909bb8f
Reviewed-on: https://team-review.git.corp.google.com/c/golang/go-private/+/812099


Reviewed-by: Filippo Valsorda <valsorda@google.com>
Reviewed-on: https://go-review.googlesource.com/c/go/+/247120


Run-TryBot: Katie Hockman <katie@golang.org>
TryBot-Result: Gobot Gobot <gobot@golang.org>
Reviewed-by: Alexander Rakoczy <alex@golang.org>